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第五章．守在倉廩—秦朝的政治生態學
1「始皇帝」一詞英譯為「元始天尊」（first majestic deity）更符合字面意義，但我會遵循舊慣，稱之為「帝國」（empire）和「帝國的」（imperial），後者的來源並非秦王偏好的宗教語言，而是出自拉丁文的軍銜「統帥」（imperator）。
2Robin D. S. Yates, “The Rise of Qin and the Military Conquest of the Warring States”; James C. Scott, Seeing Like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition Have Failed.
3中國早期帝國是古代世界行政能力最強的帝國，這一論斷參看Samuel E. Finer, The History of Government from the Earliest Times. Volume 1: Ancient Monarchies and Empires. 出土的秦和漢初法律文本，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 39-46, 221-33; Thies Staack and Ulrich Lau, Legal Practice in the Formative Stages of the Chinese Empire: An Annotated Translation of the Exemplary Qin Criminal Cases from the Yuelu Academy Collection; Robin D. S. Yates, “Evidence for Qin Law in the Qianling County Archive: A Preliminary Survey.”
4Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, chap. 2; Gabriel Ardant, “Financial Policy and Economic Infrastructure of Modern States and Nation”; Terence D’Altroy and Timothy Earle, “Staple Finance, Wealth Finance and Storage in the Inka Political Economy.”
5Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 183-88; Monica L. Smith, “Territories, Corridors, and Networks: A Biological Model for the Premodern State.”
6關於分封諸侯論，參看司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二三八至二三九、二五四至二五五。William H. Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, 137, 146-47.
7中國行政組織史，參看G. William. Skinner, The City in Late Imperial China; Madeleine Zelin, The Magistrate’s Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch’ing China.
8秦的宗教參看Mu-chou Poo, “Religion and Religious Life of the Qin.” 以及Charles Sanft, “Paleographic Evidence of Qin Religious Practice from Liye and Zhoujiatai.” 中國及其他地方的統治權意識型態，參看Samuel E. Finer, The History of Government from the Earliest Times, 26; Léon Vandermeersch, “An Enquiry into the Chinese Conception of the Law”; Dominic Lieven, Empire: The Russian Empire and Its Rivals, 10-11.
9Luke Habberstad, Forming the Early Chinese Court: Rituals, Spaces, Roles.
10研究漢朝政府的許多著作，都依照《漢書》卷十九〈百官公卿表〉的相同順序。我採用魯惟一的職官英譯名稱，但把他的「監督」改為「部」和「部長」，因為中文的名稱兼指官員和官職而言。Michael Loewe, The Government of the Qin and Han Empires 221 BCE-220 CE; Hans Bielenstein, The Bureaucracy of Han Times. 卜憲群，《秦漢官僚制度》；王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八五九至九一五。Michael Loewe, A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods (221 BC-AD 24), 757-65. 關於璽印封泥，參看周曉陸、路東之編，《秦封泥集》；中國社會科學院考古研究所漢長安城工作隊，〈西安相家巷遺址秦封泥的發掘〉；以及陝西省考古研究所編著，《秦都咸陽考古報告》。
11兩位御前大臣官職較高者稱為「相邦」，通常由外來客卿出任，較低者則稱為「丞相」。帝國顧問官稱為「御史大夫」，最高統帥則是「太尉」。丞相、御史大夫、太尉在漢代稱為「三公」，各部長官則是「九卿」，但並無證據顯示秦代已經使用「三公」「九卿」等詞。聶新民、劉雲輝，〈秦置相邦丞相考異〉；司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二三六、二六○、二六七；卷七十一〈樗里子甘茂列傳〉，頁二三一一。Derk Bodde, China’s First Unifier: A Study of the Ch’in Dynasty as Seen in the Life of Li Ssuˇ (280?-208 B.C.). 王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八六六；傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》，頁三。（譯者案：作者將李斯擔任丞相的時間誤記為西元前二一九至二一三年。）
12這些政府部門的中文名稱如下：（一）奉常、或太常；（二）郎中令；（三）衛尉；（四）太僕；（五）廷尉；（六）典客；（七）宗正；（八）治粟內史；（九）少府；（十）中尉。奉常／太常、郎中令、衛尉、典客、中尉的職權範圍多半與都城相關。秦時奉常、郎中丞、廷尉、宗正、少府、中尉和內史的璽印封泥皆已發現。漢初律令也記載了備塞都尉、車騎尉、中大夫令等職名，其品秩與政府各部門相當，秦時可能也是如此。Michael Loewe, The Government of the Qin and Han Empires 221 BCE-220 CE, 24-33; Hans Bielenstein, The Bureaucracy of Han Times, 17-69. 傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 983-87, 1179.
13向華山祈禱一事，參看Yuri Pines, “The Question of Interpretation: Qin History in Light of New Epigraphic Sources.” 司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二六六；卷二十八〈封禪書〉，頁一三七一至一三七七。Burton Watson, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty, 16-18; Lothar von Falkenhausen, Chinese Society in the Age of Confucius (1000-250 BC): The Archaeological Evidence, 328-36; Hung Wu, “The Art and Architecture of the Warring States Period,” 716-17; Michael Nylan and Griet Vankeerberghen, Chang’an 26 BCE: An Augustan Age in China, 24, 33, 211-12. 徐衛民，《秦漢都城與自然環境關係研究》，頁一八二至一九九。關於農神，參看Charles Sanft, “Paleographic Evidence of Qin Religious Practices from Liye and Zhoujiatai.” （譯者案：華山玉版禱詞應是秦惠文王向華山禱告，祈求神明禳除自己和百姓所罹患的流行病，參看周鳳五，〈《秦惠文王禱詞華山玉版》新探〉，《中央研究院歷史語言研究所集刊》，第七十二本第一分〔二○○○年三月〕，頁二一七至二三二。）
14陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁五五至五六；王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八八三至八八五。Homer H. Dubs, The History of the Former Han Dynasty, vol. 1, 281-83, 242. 范曄，《後漢書》，〈志二十六．百官三〉，頁三五九○。秦的大糧倉稱為「太倉」，國庫則是「大內」。太的字義是「大」，可能寫成「泰」、「大」或「太」。《漢書》也記載，治粟內史掌管君王率百官舉行耕田儀式的「籍田」，但我們不知道秦時是否已存在籍田之禮。王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八八三至八八五；第三冊，〈律曆志第一上〉，頁一一六四。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 54. 傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》，頁五八；楊振紅，《出土簡牘與秦漢社會（續編）》，頁三至三○。關於太倉，參看A.F.P. Hulsewé, “The Ch’in Documents Discovered in Hupei in 1975”, 195-200. 司馬遷，《史記》，卷十一〈孝景本紀〉，頁四四六。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 1013. 傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》，頁六三。
15Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 78, 121; Esson M. Gale, Discourses on Salt and Iron: A Debate on State Control of Commerce and Industry in Ancient China, 34. 王利器，《鹽鐵論校注》上冊，〈復古第六〉，頁七八。漢代少府歲收相對於中央政府的數字，出自漢代中葉的桓譚，《新論》，〈離事第十一〉。王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八八四至八八五。（譯者案：宋朝收入《太平御覽》的《新論》「下重萬字」，記為「少府所領園地作務之八十三萬萬」，作者依此立論。）
16關於秦的通信系統，參看王子今，《秦漢交通史稿》，頁二八至三二。Charles Sanft, Communication and Cooperation in Early Imperial China: Publicizing the Qin Dynasty, chap. 6; A.F.P. Hulsewe, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 211-15; Y. Edmund Lien, “Reconstructing the Postal Relay System of the Han Period.”
17繪製地圖的命令，參看陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一一八（8-224、8-412、8-1415號簡）。Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 479. 引文出自賈公彥，《周禮注疏》上冊，卷九〈地官司徒第二．大司徒〉，頁三三三至三三四。
18司馬遷，《史記》，卷五十三〈蕭相國世家〉，頁二○一四。
19Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 111-20; Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 72. 秦對縣令的稱呼是「大嗇夫」或「縣嗇夫」。由於「嗇夫」是對主事者的通稱，我也依照何四維的英譯稱做「監督人」，只有縣令除外。漢代文獻也提到邑、市、傳舍、廚、庫等「嗇夫」，所有這些官職秦時可能都已存在。財務官職稱做「少內」。關於縣令，參看裘錫圭，〈嗇夫初探〉，以及A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 36, 87. 關於各種嗇夫，參看A.F.P. Hulsewe, “The Ch’in Documents Discovered in Hupei in 1975”, 201-4. 葉山撰，胡川安譯，〈解讀里耶秦簡：秦代地方行政制度〉；銀雀山漢墓竹簡整理小組編，《銀雀山漢墓竹簡》第一輯，頁八一（守法守令等十三篇，圖版八四三至八四六）、八五（圖版八八八至八九七）、九○（圖版九四八）；湖北省文物考古研究所、隨州市考古隊編著，《隨州孔家坡漢墓簡牘》，頁一二三、一九七。
20關於鄰伍，參看Robin D. S. Yates, “Social Status in the Ch’in: Evidence from the Yun-Meng Legal Documents. Part One: Commoners”, 219-28; Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 788-89.
21王先謙，《漢書補注》第一冊，〈高帝紀第一上〉，頁十。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 111-19; Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 104.
22陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁六三至六四、九三至九五、一三五（三六、三七、八六至九三、一八七號簡）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 29, 38-41, 53-55, 78-82, 90-101; Barbieri-Low and Yates, Law, State, and Society, 823-32.
23規定地方官員需呈報之資訊的律令，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 798-99. 戶曹的登記簿（計錄）參看陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一六七（8-488號簡）；司空曹和倉曹的計錄，參看陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一六四（8-480和8-481號簡）；遷陵金布曹的計錄，參看陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一五二至一五三（8-454號簡）。
24Yi-tien Hsing, “Qin-Han Census and Tax and Corvée Administration: Notes on Newly Discovered Texts.” 陳絜，〈里耶「戶籍簡」與戰國末期的基層社會〉。Charles Sanft, “Population Records from Liye: Ideology in Practice.” 葉山在〈解讀里耶秦簡：秦代地方行政制度〉一文中，提供了一名並未喪夫的女性列為戶主的例子（里耶8-19號簡）。
25Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 697-706. 睡虎地秦墓竹簡整理小組編，《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十五（秦律十八種，圖版一至三）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 21.
26歐洲和清代徵稅的簡短對照，參看Madeleine Zelin, The Magistrate’s Tael: Rationalizing Fiscal Reform in Eighteenth-Century Ch’ing China, 5-9.
27中國歷史上的穀糧貯存，參看Francesca Bray, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.2, 378-423; Pierre-Etienne Will and Roy Bin Wong, Nourish the People: The State Civilian Granary System in China, 1650-1850. 用麻布納稅，參看朱漢民、陳松長主編，《嶽麓書院藏秦簡》第二卷，頁六（圖版二八）。
28這五種簿籍登記的中文名稱為「宅園戶籍」、「年細籍」、「田比地籍」、「田合籍」、「田租籍」。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 798-99 (slips 331-32).
29Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 686-702. 山田勝芳，《秦漢財政収入の研究》，頁三三。
30引文出自《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十五（秦律十八種，圖版一至三）。我修訂了A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 21. 的英譯，另參看Robin D. S. Yates, “Some Notes on Ch’in Law: A Review Article of Remnants of Ch’in Law by A.F.P. Hulsewe”, 247. 從特定面積的土地徵收固定稅額，參看彭浩，《張家山漢簡《算數書》注釋》，頁七七（題八五），以及Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 135.
31Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE.” 換算率的一例如下：「禾三步一斗，麥四步一斗，荅五步一斗。」彭浩，《張家山漢簡《算數書》注釋》，頁五八（題四三）。Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 119; Karine Chemla and Biao Ma, “How Do the Earliest Known Mathematical Writings Highlight the State’s Management of Grains in Early Imperial China?”; Karine Chemla and Shuchun Guo, Les neuf chapitres: Le classique mathematique de la Chine ancienne et ses commentaires, 201-61.
32A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 23; Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 81-110. 湖南省文物考古研究所編著，《里耶秦簡》第一冊，頁一（圖版一五○，該書8-1165號簡，但在陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一七九則是8-559號簡）。芻稾的用途，參看Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 126-27 (nos. 52-54). 羽毛和蠶繭上稅，參看湖南省文物考古研究所編著，《里耶秦簡》第一冊，頁七六、二二二（8-158、8-1735號簡）。
33彭浩，《張家山漢簡《算數書》注釋》，頁七三（題七二）。Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 132.
34蔣禮鴻，《商君書錐指》，〈算地第六〉，頁四二。Jan J. L. Duyvendak, Book of Lord Shang: A Classic of the Chinese School of Law; Translated from the Chinese with Introduction and Notes, 111; Yuri Pines, The Book of Lord Shang: Apologetics of State Power in Early China, 158-59; D. C. Legge, Mencius: A Bilingual Edition, 1A.129; Ian Johnston, The Mozi: A Complete Translation, 20.200-1. 司馬遷，《史記》，卷七十九〈范雎蔡澤列傳〉，頁二四二三。
35司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二五一；陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁三四六（8-1519號簡）。關於「草田」，參看陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第二卷，頁二一、四九（9-15、9-40號簡）；另參看頁三七七和四七七（編號9-1865、9-2344）。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 796 (nos. 323 and 324); Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 233, 558-62.
36運用刑徒開墾，參看Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 122-23. 以及陳偉主編，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁一四一（8-383號簡）。論及秦的引文，參看劉向集錄，《戰國策》中冊，卷十八〈趙一．秦王謂公子他〉，頁六一八。James Crump, Chan-Kuo Ts’e, 336. 關於爵制，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, xxii, 873-75, 1328. 唐律中存在的類似制度，參看Denis Twitchett, Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty.
37一步為六尺，一尺約為二十三點一公分。因此步長一點三九公尺，面積為一點九平方公尺；二百四十方步面積為一畝，百畝為一頃。一畝約為四百五十七平方公尺，因此一頃為四萬五千七百平方公尺。相對來說，一英畝為四千零四十七平方公尺，一公頃則為一萬平方公尺。土地重新分配和爵位高者繳稅的法律，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 790-93 (slips 310-17). 以及楊振紅，〈《二年律令》與秦漢名田宅制〉。關於度量衡，參看Endymion Wilkinson, Chinese History: A New Manual, 552-58. 這些法律旨在於限制權勢者持有土地的想法，參看Lien-sheng Yang, “Notes on the Economic History of the Chin Dynasty.” 以及瀧川龜太郎，《史記會注考證》卷六十八，〈商君列傳第八〉，頁三四○一。無爵者的地位，參看Robin D. S. Yates, “Social Status in the Ch’in: Evidence from the Yun-Meng Legal Documents. Part One: Commoners”, 201-3.
38Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 790-91 (nos. 312-13).
39令人困惑的是，一「石」既是一百二十斤（每斤兩百五十公克，總重三十公斤）的重量單位，又是一百升（每升兩百毫升，總重二十公升）的容量單位。孫念禮估算，漢代一石相當於美國一點二九蒲式耳（bushels，英斗）的帶殼小米。班固，《漢書》，卷二十四上〈食貨志上〉，頁一一二五。Nancy Lee Swann, Food & Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 25, 140-42, 365; Endymion Wilkinson, Chinese History: A New Manual, 555-56. 近代土地數字，參看Loren Brandt and Barbara Sands, “Land Concentration and Income Distribution in Republican China”, 182.
40Keith Hopkins, Conquerors and Slaves: Sociological Studies in Roman History, 2-3; Sheng-han Shih, A Preliminary Study of the Book Ch’i Min Yao Shu: An Agricultural Encyclopaedia of the 6th Century.
41後世的情況參看Denis Twitchett, Financial Administration under the T’ang Dynasty, 1-11; Etienne Balazs, “Le traité économique du ‘Souei-chou’”, 144-53; Lien-sheng Yang, “Notes on the Economic History of the Chin Dynasty”, 119-26, 167-68.
42日後的鄭國渠，參看Pierre-Étienne Will, “Clear Waters versus Muddy Waters: The Zheng-Bai Irrigation System of Shaanxi Province in the Late-Imperial Period.” In Sediments of Time: Environment and Society in Chinese History, edited by Mark Elvin and Ts’ui-jung Liu”, 325。英國軍官的引文出自Ruth Rogaski, Hygienic Modernity: Meanings of Health and Disease in Treaty-Port China, 87; Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, “Coerced Migration and Resettlement in the Qin Imperial Expansion.”
43陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁六五（四○號簡）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 41-42; Armin Selbitschka, “Quotidian Afterlife: Grain, Granary Models, and the Notion of Continuing Sustenance in Late Pre-Imperial and Early Imperial Tombs”; Robin D. S. Yates, “War, Food Shortages, and Relief Measures in Early China.”
44陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁五六至五七（二一至二七號簡）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 34-35.
45蔡萬進，《秦國糧食經濟研究》（敖倉位於滎陽）；司馬遷，《史記》，卷九十七〈酈生陸賈列傳〉，頁二六九四；《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十九（秦律十八種，圖版四九至五○）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 31.
46本節取材於Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE.” 以及A.F.P. Hulsewé, “Some Remarks on Statute Labour during the Ch’in and Han Period.” 里耶文獻中令人目瞪口呆的勞動義務清單，參看陳偉，《里耶秦簡牘校釋》第一卷，頁八四至八五、一九六（8-145、8-663號簡）。
47《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁二六（秦律十八種，圖版一三六）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 67.
48參看陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁一○五（一一五至一二四號簡）。Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 63-64; Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 902-10. 我的英譯根據陳偉主編，孫占宇、晏昌貴撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂版》第四冊，頁二二五至二三七。A.F.P. Hulsewe, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 211-15; Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 693-711.
49Joseph Needham, Ling Wang, and Gwei-djen Lu, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 4.3, 299-306; Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 497-509. 史念海，〈論濟水和鴻溝〉。
50關於漢代律法，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low, and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 902-3. 關於水利管理，參看Brian Lander, “State Management of River Dikes in Early China: New Sources on the Environmental History of the Central Yangzi Region.” 對都水職責的描述，乃是依據如淳注《漢書》引用的《三輔黃圖》。王先謙，《漢書補注》第二冊，〈百官公卿表第七上〉，頁八七○、八八四至八八五、八九四至八九六；傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》，頁十八；何清谷，《三輔黃圖校釋》，頁三五三至三五五。
51引文出自Gideon Shelach, “Collapse or Transformation? Anthropological and Archaeological Perspectives on the Fall of Qin”, 129. 司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二四四至二五九。William H. Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, 139-51. 魯惟一在 “On the Terms Bao Zi, Yin Gong, Yin Guan, Huan, and Shou: Was Zhao Gao a Eunuch?”一文中主張，司馬遷提及的「隱宮徒刑者七十餘萬人」可能是「隱官」，這些囚犯遭受過肉刑，但隨後得到一定程度的解放。關於君主制和環境，參看Martin Warnke, Political Landscape: The Art History of Nature.
52Marlee A. Tucker et al., “Moving in the Anthropocene: Global Reductions in Terrestrial Mammalian Movements.”
53司馬遷，《史記》，卷八十八〈蒙恬列傳〉，頁二五七○。William H. Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 7, 367. 「輕」的英譯加以修訂，以反映「隨便對待，認為無足輕重」的字義。質疑對秦國傳統看法的學術著作範例，參看Derk Bodde, “The State and Empire of Ch’in”; Charles Sanft, Communication and Cooperation in Early Imperial China: Publicizing the Qin Dynasty; Xiaofen Huang, “A Study of Qin Straight Road (zhidao 直道) of the Qin Dynasty” 一文，強調直道的規模大得不必要。
54《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁二○（秦律十八種，圖版六三）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 45; Brian Lander, Mindi SSchneider, and Katherine Brunson, “A History of Pigs in China: From Curious Omnivores to Industrial Pork.” 關於盜竊家畜，參看《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁四九、五一至五三、七○（法律答問，圖版五至六、二九、四一至五○；封診式，圖版二一）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 122-33, 189.
55司馬遷，《史記》，卷一二九〈貨殖列傳〉，頁三二五四、三二六二。Burton Watson, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty, 434, 441; Xiaolong Wu, “Cultural Hybridity and Social Status: Elite Tombs on China’s Northern Frontier during the Third Century BC.”
56秦擁有大量牛隻的概念，參看劉向集錄，《戰國策》中冊，卷十八〈趙一．秦王謂公子他〉，頁六一八。James Crump, Chan-Kuo Ts’e, 336. 《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十八至二五（秦律十八種，圖版四七、七二至七四、一一七至一二四）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 30, 47, 63; Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 920-33 (nos. 421-25). 彭浩，《張家山漢簡《算數書》注釋》，頁五二（五三至五四題）。Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 126-27.
57《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十六至二五（秦律十八種，圖版十三至二○、三一、一二六至一二七）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 26-28, 74, 115.
58周曉陸、路東之編，《秦封泥集》，頁一八三至一九八；傅嘉儀，《秦封泥彙攷》。Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 983-84, 1014, 1061, 1079-80, 1118-62, 1256; Xiang Wan, “The Horse in Pre-Imperial China.”
59陳偉主編，彭浩、劉樂賢撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂本》第一冊，頁一六一、一七○（九至十、二九至三○號簡）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 107, 114.
60Charles Sanft, “Environment and Law in Early Imperial China (Third Century, BCE-First Century CE): Qin and Han Statutes Concerning Natural Resources”; Ian M Miller, “Forestry and the Politics of Sustainability in Early China”; W. Allyn Rickett, Guanzi: Political, Economic and Philosophical Essays from Early China: A Study and Translation, vol. 1, 107; John Knoblock, Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, 9.241.
61Ian M. Miller, “Forestry and the Politics of Sustainability in Early China”; Nancy Lee Swann, Food & Money in Ancient China: The Earliest Economic History of China to A.D. 25, 121. 《周官》將這些官員稱為山虞、林衡、川衡、澤虞。賈公彥，《周禮注疏》上冊，卷十七〈地官司徒下〉，頁五九○至五九五。Édouard Biot, Le Tcheou-li ou Rites des Tcheou, 105-6; John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, The Annals of Lu Buwei: A Complete Translation and Study, 6.155.（另參看該書頁六五三。）王先謙，《荀子集解》，〈王制第九〉，頁一六八。 John Knoblock, Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, 106. （譯者案：《呂氏春秋》，〈季夏紀第六〉：「是月也，樹木方盛，〔陰將始刑〕，乃命虞人入山行木，無或斬伐。」作者正文誤記為春季。）
62引文出自《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁十五（秦律十八種，圖版三至六）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 22.（我修訂了何四維的英譯。）Robin D. S. Yates, “Some Notes on Ch’in Law: A Review Article of Remnants of Ch’in Law by A.F.P. Hulsewe”, 248. 梁柱、劉信芳編著，《雲夢龍崗秦簡》，簡片二七八、二七九、二五八、二五四包含秦朝在湖北雲夢禁苑施行的律法，其中宣告在苑內盜獵野豬、狗和三種鹿的人，被查獲將處以苦役，但任何獵捕豺、狼、狸、豪豬、狐、雉和兔的人，被查獲則不受處罰。關於木炭，參看Joseph W. Dauben, “Suan Shu Shu: A Book on Numbers and Computations; English Translation with Commentary”, 146.
63《史記．貨殖列傳》顯示，戰國時期是大規模私人貿易盛行的時代，儘管其記載反映司馬遷自身的時代，或許更多於一兩百年前的情況。司馬遷，《史記》，卷一二九〈貨殖列傳〉，頁三二五三至三二八四。Burton Watson, Records of the Grand Historian: Han Dynasty, 433-54. 採礦和金屬，參看Peter J. Golas, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 5.13, 72-109; Donald B. Wagner, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 5.11, 140-44. 使用刑徒開礦，參看Maxim Korolkov, “Empire-Building and Market-Making at the Qin Frontier: Imperial Expansion and Economic Change, 221-207 BCE”, 215.（引述湖南省文物考古研究所編著，《里耶秦簡》，頁五七至五八［12-3、12-447號簡〕。）
64Donald B. Wagner, Iron and Steel in Ancient China, 258; Donald B. Wagner, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 5.11, 83-170. 劉興林，《先秦兩漢農業與鄉村聚落的考古學研究》，頁三三至三九。關於出土文本，參看Anthony J. Barbieri-Low and Robin D. S. Yates, Law, State, and Society in Early Imperial China: A Study with Critical Edition and Translation of the Legal Texts from Zhangjiashan Tomb No. 247, 1251-54. 何有祖，〈新見里耶秦簡牘資料選校（一）〉（10-673號簡）。
65Songchang Chen, “Two Ordinances Issued during the Reign of the Second Emperor of the Qin Dynasty in the Yuelu Academy Collection of Qin Slips.”
66放馬灘地圖，參看晏昌貴，〈天水放馬灘木板地圖新探〉；陳偉主編，孫占宇、晏昌貴撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂版》第四冊；王子今、李斯，〈放馬灘秦地圖林業交通史料研究〉。Donald J. Harper and Marc Kalinowski, Books of Fate and Popular Culture in Early China: The Daybook Manuscripts of the Warring States, Qin, and Han, 21-25. 《漢書》陳述渭河和鄰近的洮河上游山谷森林茂密，當地人民以木板築屋（「天水、隴西，山多林木，民以板為室屋」），這對於屋舍以夯土和磚築成的關中人民來說並不尋常。史念海，《黄土高原歷史地理研究》，頁一二五、一四九至一五○；王先謙，《漢書補注》第六冊，〈地理志第八下二〉，頁二八二四；王利器，《鹽鐵論校注》上冊，卷一〈通有第三〉，頁四一。木材順流而下，參看王利器，《新語校注》卷下，〈資質第七〉，頁一○一。John S. Major et al., The Huainanzi: A Guide to the Theory and Practice of Government in Early Han China, 18.733.
67關於地圖，參看W. Allyn. Rickett, Guanzi: Political, Economic and Philosophical Essays from Early China: A Study and Translation, 387-91. 邢義田，〈論馬王堆漢墓「駐軍圖」應正名為「箭道封域圖」〉；賈公彥，《周禮注疏》卷十七，〈地官司徒下．卝人〉，頁五九六至五九七；陳偉主編，孫占宇、晏昌貴撰著，《秦簡牘合集：釋文注釋修訂版》第四冊，頁一九七。
68William H. Nienhauser, The Grand Scribe’s Records, vol. 1, 168. 司馬遷，《史記》，卷六〈秦始皇本紀〉，頁二八三。Walter Scheidel, “The Early Roman Monarchy,” 233-34.
69Bruce G. Trigger, Understanding Early Civilizations: A Comparative Study, 388.（引述韋伯。）
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