第二章．孕育生機—人們如何建立自己的生態系

1Yinon M. Bar-On, Rob Phillips, and Ron Milo, “The Biomass Distribution on Earth.” 以十億噸碳生質計算，牛總重六千一百萬公噸碳，豬兩千一百萬公噸碳，兩者合計占了全世界哺乳動物生質總量一億六千七百萬公噸碳的百分之四十八。

2以下段落摘要Brian Lander, “Birds and Beasts Were Many: The Ecology and Climate of the Guanzhong Basin in the Pre-Imperial Period.” 該文原先預計成為本書其中一章，另參看Brian Lander, “Wild Mammals of Ancient North China.” 以及史念海，〈古代的關中〉。

3Tristram R. Kidder and Yijie Zhuang, “Anthropocene Archaeology of the Yellow River, China, 5000-2000 BP”; Joseph Needham, Ling Wang, and Gwei-djen Lu, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 4.3; Ruth Mostern, The Yellow River: A Natural and Unnatural History. 關中盆地在中國通常被當作黃土高原的一部分，但我認為它不同於黃土高原，因為關中盆地海拔較低。

4Yong-Xiang Li, Yun-Xiang Zhang, and Xiang-Xu Xue, “The Composition of Three Mammal Faunas and Environmental Evolution in the Last Glacial Maximum, Guanzhong Area, Shaanxi Province, China.” 祁國琴，〈中國北方第四紀哺乳動物群兼論原始人類生活環境〉，頁三三三至三三四。Haowen Tong, “Occurrences of Warm-Adapted Mammals in North China over the Quaternary Period and Their Paleoenvironmental Significance”; Qiaomei Fu et al., “DNA Analysis of an Early Modern Human from Tianyuan Cave, China.”

5黃春長在二○一三年告訴我，他和同事們估計全新世中期的氣溫更暖一點五度，降雨量多兩百毫米，但這些數字很難證明，因為它們根據幾條不同的證據線索。除了黃春長的著作，也可參看Hou-Yuan Lu et al., “Phytoliths as Quantitative Indicators for the Reconstruction of Past Environmental Conditions in China II: Palaeoenvironmental Reconstruction in the Loess Plateau.” 以及Z.-D.Feng et al., “Stratigraphic Evidence of a Megahumid Climate between 10,000 and 4000 Years B.P. in the Western Part of the Chinese Loess Plateau.” 關於古代氣候和動物相，參看Joris Peters et al., “Holocene Cultural History of Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus) and Its Domestic Descendant in East Asia”; Brian Lander, “Wild Mammals of Ancient North China”; Samuel T. Turvey and Susanne A. Fritz, “The Ghosts of Mammals Past: Biological and Geographical Patterns of Global Mammalian Extinction across the Holocene.”

6Katherine J. Willis and Jennifer McElwain, The Evolution of Plants, 225-64; Brian Lander, “Birds and Beasts Were Many: The Ecology and Climate of the Guanzhong Basin in the Pre-Imperial Period”; Hui Shen et al., “Forest Cover and Composition on the Loess Plateau during the Middle to Late-Holocene: Integrating Wood Charcoal Analyses.”

7關中平原最常見的樹種是楊樹（青楊、黑楊、小葉楊、毛白楊［Populus cathayana, P. nigra, P. simonii, and P. tomentosa〕）；泡桐（毛泡桐，學名Paulownia tomentosa）；梓木（楸樹，學名Catalpa bungee）；槐（學名Styphnolobium japonicum）；白榆樹（學名Ulmus pumila）；樗（臭椿，學名Ailanthus altissima）；柳樹（白毛柳，學名Salix sp.）；柏樹（側柏，學名Platycladus orientalis）；刺柏（檜柏，學名Juniperus chinensis）；以及赤松（油松，學名Pinus tabuliformis）。參看陝西省地方志編纂委員會編，《陝西省植被志》，頁五三八。

8對這些課題更詳細的討論，參看Brian Lander, “Birds and Beasts Were Many: The Ecology and Climate of the Guanzhong Basin in the Pre-Imperial Period”; Brian Lander, “Wild Mammals of Ancient North China.” 以及Samuel T. Turvey et al., “Long-Term Archives Reveal Shifting Extinction Selectivity in China’s Postglacial Mammal Fauna.” 關於鯢，參看Xiao-ming Wang et al., “The Decline of the Chinese Giant Salamander Andrias davidianus and Implications for Its Conservation.” 田螺的學名為Cipangopaludina chinensis，石蚌的學名為Unio (or Nodularia) douglasiae。Fengjiang Li et al., “Mid-Neolithic Exploitation of Mollusks in the Guanzhong Basin of Northwestern China: Preliminary Results.” 黃河水系的魚類，參看黃河水系漁業資源調查協作組，《黃河水系漁業資源》。Jonathan Watts, “30% of Yellow River Fish Species Extinct.”

9Bruce D. Smith, “Low-Level Food Production”; Gary W. Crawford, “Early Rice Exploitation in the Lower Yangzi Valley: What Are We Missing?”; Marshall Sahlins, Stone Age Economics; Laurent Sagart et al., “Dated Language Phylogenies Shed Light on the Ancestry of Sino-Tibetan”; Peter Bellwood, “Asian Farming Diasporas? Agriculture, Languages, and Genes in China and Southeast Asia.”

10Wu Liu et al., “The Earliest Unequivocally Modern Humans in Southern China”; Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, 42-74. 中國社會科學院考古研究所、陝西省考古研究所，〈陝西宜川縣龍王迪舊石器時代遺址〉。Li Liu et al., “Plant Exploitation of the Last Foragers at Shizitan in the Middle Yellow River Valley China: Evidence from Grinding Stones.”

11本段內容根據Bruce D. Smith, “A Cultural Niche Construction Theory of Initial Domestication.” 也得到蓋瑞．克勞福的建議。

12Melinda A. Zeder, “The Domestication of Animals.”

13感謝莎夏（Sasha）和歐提斯（Ortis），讓我對狗的行為得到諸多洞見。Laurent A. F. Frantz et al., “Genomic and Archaeological Evidence Suggest a Dual Origin of Domestic Dogs”; Olaf Thalmann et al., “Complete Mitochondrial Genomes of Ancient Canids Suggest a European Origin of Domestic Dogs”; Melinda A. Zeder, “Pathways to Animal Domestication”; Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, 96-98; Greger Larson et al., “Rethinking Dog Domestication by Integrating Genetics, Archeology, and Biogeography.”

14Sheahan Bestel et al., “The Evolution of Millet Domestication, Middle Yellow River Region, North China: Evidence from Charred Seeds at the Late Upper Paleolithic Shizitan Locality 9 Site”; Xiaoyan Yang et al., “Early Millet Use in Northern China”; Robert N. Spengler, “Anthropogenic Seed Dispersal: Rethinking the Origins of Plant Domestication”; Bruce D. Smith, The Emergence of Agriculture, 20.

15Shouliang Chen et al., Flora of China, vol. 22: Poaceae, 22:508, 535-36; Silas T.A.R. Kajuna, Millet: Post-Harvest Operations, 40; Houyuan Lu et al., “Earliest Domestication of Common Millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia Extended to 10,000 Years Ago”; Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, 83-84; Zhijun Zhao, “New Archaeobotanic Data for the Study of the Origins of Agriculture in China”; Xinyi Liu, Harriet V. Hunt, and Martin K. Jones, “River Valleys and Foothills: Changing Archaeological Perceptions of North China’s Earliest Farms”; Eugene Anderson, Food and Environment in Early and Medieval China, 37.

16Paul Halstead and John O’Shea, Bad Year Economics: Cultural Responses to Risk and Uncertainty; Jared M. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies., chap. 7; Patrick E. McGovern, Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages; Li Liu et al., “The Origins of Specialized Pottery and Diverse Alcohol Fermentation Techniques in Early Neolithic China”; Brian Hayden, “Were Luxury Foods the First Domesticates? Ethnoarchaeological Perspectives from Southeast Asia”; Jianping Zhang et al., “Phytolith Evidence for Rice Cultivation and Spread in Mid-Late Neolithic Archaeological Sites in Central North China”; Yunbing Zong et al., “Selection for Oil Content during Soybean Domestication Revealed by X-Ray Tomography of Ancient Beans”; James C. Scott, Against the Grain: A Deep History of the Earliest States. 貝喜安等人在〈野生植物使用與複作〉（Wild Plant Use and Multi-Cropping）一文中揭示，人們也採集蕓薹屬、大麻和野棗。

17關中地區早於老官臺文化最新出土的遺址，大概發表於劉士莪、張洲，〈陝西韓城禹門口舊石器時代洞穴遺址〉。木炭使用的證據，參看Chun Chang Huang et al., “High-Resolution Studies of the Oldest Cultivated Soils in the Southern Loess Plateau of China”, 38-39; Zhihai Tan et al., “Holocene Wildfires Related to Climate and Land-Use Change over the Weihe River Basin, China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Charcoal Records of Fire History in the Holocene Loess—Soil Sequences over the Southern Loess Plateau of China”, 34; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Colluviation and Its Implications for Tracing Human-Induced Soil Erosion and Redeposition on the Piedmont Loess Lands of the Qinling Mountains, Northern China”, 844; Xiaoqiang Li et al., “Holocene Agriculture in the Guanzhong Basin in NW China Indicated by Pollen and Charcoal Evidence.” 更廣義的用火，參看Stephen J. Pyne, Fire: A Brief History, 48-84，以及Neil Roberts, “Prehistoric Landscape Management Retard the Post-Glacial Spread of Woodland in Southwest Asia?” 新石器時代人類造成的侵蝕，參看Arlene Rosen, “The Impact of Environmental Change and Human Land Use on Alluvial Valleys in the Loess Plateau of China during the Middle Holocene.” 以及Arlene M. Rosen et al., “The Anthropocene and the Landscape of Confucius: A Historical Ecology of Landscape Changes in Northern and Eastern China during the Middle to Late-Holocene.”

18關於大地灣，參看Loukas Barton et al., “Agricultural Origins and the Isotopic Identity of Domestication in Northern China.” 以及甘肅省文物考古研究所編著，《秦安大地灣：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁二一至七六。關中考古遺址出土的工具，參看北京大學考古學教研室，〈華縣、渭南古代遺址調查與試掘〉；西安半坡博物館，〈渭南北劉新石器時代早期遺址調查與試掘簡報〉；中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《臨潼白家村》。關於飲食，參看Pia Atahan et al., “Early Neolithic Diets at Baijia, Wei River Valley, China: Stable Carbon and Nitrogen Isotope Analysis of Human and Faunal Remains”, 2815; Ekaterina A. Pechenkina et al., “Reconstructing Northern Chinese Neolithic Subsistence Practices by Isotopic Analysis”; Rui. Wang, “Fishing, Farming, and Animal Husbandry in the Early and Middle Neolithic of the Middle Yellow River Valley, China”, 157-63.

19關桃園考古報告將第二期定於西元前五三五○年，文化近似的第三期則定於西元前五三五○至四九五○年間。此時該處的動物相種類多過同時期關中平原上的其他遺址，例如白家村。陝西省考古研究院、寶雞市考古工作隊編著，《寶雞關桃園》，頁二八二至三二五、三五八至三六三。

20甘肅省文物考古研究所編著，《秦安大地灣：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》下冊，頁八九五。Loukas Barton et al., “Agricultural Origins and the Isotopic Identity of Domestication in Northern China”; Melinda A. Zeder, “The Domestication of Animals.”

21劉莉、楊東亞、陳星燦，〈中國家養水牛起源初探〉。Dongya Yang et al., “Wild or Domesticated: DNA Analysis of Ancient Water Buffalo Remains from North China”; Jean A. Lefeuvre, “Rhinoceros and Wild Buffaloes North of the Yellow River at the End of the Shang Dynasty”; Brian Lander and Katherine Brunson, “The Sumatran Rhinoceros Was Extirpated from Mainland East Asia by Hunting and Habitat Loss.” 野羊和野山羊的遺骸，參看北京大學考古學教研室，〈華縣、渭南古代遺址調查與試掘〉，頁三○四。關於其他動物，參看中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《臨潼白家村》，頁一二三至一二七；陝西省考古研究所編著，《臨潼零口村》，頁五二五至五三三。

22以下這份報告即使結果尚屬初步，卻令人信服地主張新石器時代是中國第一個人口持續增長的時期：Can Wang et al., “Prehistoric Demographic Fluctuations in China Inferred from Radiocarbon Data and Their Linkage with Climate Change over the Past 50,000 Years.” 關於人類的影響，參看Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 210-19. 以及Mayke Wagner et al., “Mapping of the Spatial and Temporal Distribution of Archaeological Sites of Northern China during the Neolithic and Bronze Age.”

23Zhiyan Li, Virginia Bower, and Li He, Chinese Ceramics: From the Paleolithic Period through the Qing Dynasty, 47-58.

24Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 133-34.

25考古遺址地圖，參看Yitzchak Jaffe et al., “Mismatches of Scale in the Application of Paleoclimatic Research to Chinese Archaeology.” 關於休耕時間，參看Ester Boserup, The Conditions of Agricultural Growth: The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population Pressure.

26布局相似的其他村莊在北首嶺和大地灣發掘出土，史家遺址則有類似的物質遺存。Kwang-chih Chang, The Archaeology of Ancient China, 112-28. 周昕，《中國農具發展史》，頁六四至七一；西安半坡博物館，〈陝西渭南史家新石器時代遺址〉；中國社會科學院考古研究所、陝西省西安半坡博物館編，《西安半坡：原始氏族公社聚落遺址》，頁七五至八○、一六六至一六八，圖版七十五。

27Christian E. Peterson and Gideon Shelach, “Jiangzhai: Social and Economic Organization of a Middle Neolithic Chinese Village”; Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 82.

28陝西省考古研究所編著，《臨潼零口村》，頁四四五至四五○；西安半坡博物館、陝西省考古研究所、臨潼縣博物館編，《姜寨：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁五三九至五四二。

29Ekaterina A. Pechenkina et al., “Reconstructing Northern Chinese Neolithic Subsistence Practices by Isotopic Analysis”; Ekaterina Pechenkina, Robert A. Benfer, and Zhijun Wang, “Diet and Health Changes at the End of the Chinese Neolithic: The Yangshao/Longshan Transition in Shaanxi Province.” 西安半坡博物館編，《西安半坡》，頁三○。野生胡桃是胡桃楸（學名Juglans mandshurica），人工栽培的普通胡桃（學名J. regla）則在漢代或其後由西亞傳入。參看河北省文物管理局、邯鄲市文物保管所，〈河北武安磁山遺址〉，頁三三六。以及Ruth Beer et al., “Vegetation History of the Walnut Forests in Kyrgyzstan (Central Asia): Natural or Anthropogenic Origin?”; Li Liu, Yongqiang Li, and Jianxing Hou, “Making Beer with Malted Cereals and Qu Starter in the Neolithic Yangshao Culture, China.”

30Hua Wang et al., “Pig Domestication and Husbandry Practices in the Middle Neolithic of the Wei River Valley, Northwest China: Evidence from Linear Enamel Hypoplasia”; Hua Wang et al., “Morphometric Analysis of Sus Remains from Neolithic Sites in the Wei River Valley, China, with Implications for Domestication”; Ekaterina A. Pechenkina et al., “Reconstructing Northern Chinese Neolithic Subsistence Practices by Isotopic Analysis”, 1186; Greger Larson et al., “Patterns of East Asian Pig Domestication, Migration, and Turnover Revealed by Modern and Ancient DNA”; Brian Lander, Mindi Schneider, and Katherine Brunson, “A History of Pigs in China: From Curious Omnivores to Industrial Pork.” 武莊等，〈中國新石器時代至先秦時期遺址出土家犬的動物考古學研究〉。Raymond Coppinger and Lorna Coppinger, What Is a Dog?

31中國社會科學院考古研究所、陝西省西安半坡博物館編，《西安半坡：原始氏族公社聚落遺址》，頁二五五至二六九；西安半坡博物館、陝西省考古研究所、臨潼縣博物館編，《姜寨：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁五○四至五三八；中國社會科學院考古研究所編，《寶雞北首嶺》，頁一四六。Rowan Flad, Yuan Jing, and Li Shuicheng, “Zooarchaeological Evidence for Animal Domestication in Northwest China”, 182-84. 甘肅省文物考古研究所編著，《秦安大地灣：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》下冊，頁八六一至九一○。北首嶺從老官臺文化晚期直到仰韶文化時期都有人居住，但動物考古學報告並未區分不同層位。淡水螺是中國蘋果螺「中華圓田螺」（學名Cipangopaludina cathayensis）。

32Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 85-89; Xiaolin Ma, Emergent Social Complexity in the Yangshao Culture: Analyses of Settlement Patterns and Faunal Remains from Lingbao, Western Henan, China (c. 4900-3000 BC), 45-50; Anne P. Underhill and Junko Habu, “Early Communities in East Asia: Economic and Sociopolitical Organization at the Local and Regional Levels”, 131-32. 西北大學文博學院考古專業編著，《扶風案板遺址發掘報告》；甘肅省文物考古研究所編著，《秦安大地灣：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁一三一至一三二。

33北京大學考古學系、中國社會科學院考古研究所，《華縣泉護村》，頁三一至四七；西安半坡博物館、陝西省考古研究所、臨潼縣博物館編，《姜寨：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁二八五至二九八、三五○；陝西省考古研究院編著，《西安米家崖：新石器時代遺址2004-2006年考古發掘報告》，頁一五九、一七○；陝西省考古研究院、西北大學文化遺產與考古學研究中心編著，《高陵東營：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》，頁五八。

34Pengfei Sheng et al., “North-South Patterning of Millet Agriculture on the Loess Plateau: Late Neolithic Adaptations to Water Stress, NW China”, 1558; Xiaoqiang Li et al., “Early Cultivated Wheat and Broadening of Agriculture in Neolithic China”; Xin Jia et al., “The Development of Agriculture and Its Impact on Cultural Expansion during the Late Neolithic in the Western Loess Plateau, China”; Xinying Zhou et al., “Early Agricultural Development and Environmental Effects in the Neolithic Longdong Basin (Eastern Gansu)”; Keyang He et al., “Prehistoric Evolution of the Dualistic Structure Mixed Rice and Millet Farming in China”; Jixiang Song, Lizhi Wang, and Dorian Fuller, “A Regional Case in the Development of Agriculture and Crop Processing in Northern China from the Neolithic to Bronze Age: Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Sushui River Survey, Shanxi Province”; Gyoung-Ah Lee et al., “Archaeological Soybean (Glycine max) in East Asia: Does Size Matter?”; Jianping Zhang et al., “Phytolith Evidence for Rice Cultivation and Spread in Mid-Late Neolithic Archaeological Sites in Central North China”; Yunbing Zong et al., “Selection for Oil Content during Soybean Domestication Revealed by X-Ray Tomography of Ancient Beans”; Mitchell Ma, “The Prehistoric Flora of Yangguangzhai.” 最後一份未出版的研究，列出以下各個物種的籽粒數量：看麥娘屬，一五六三；小米，一一八四；豆科，八○六；禾本科，四七○；黍，一七九；馬齒莧，一一七；藜，十九；豬毛菜，十三；紫蘇，十；蓼，三；芡（學名Euryale ferox），二。

35Ekaterina Pechenkina, Robert A. Benfer, and Xiaolin Ma, “Diet and Health in the Neolithic of the Wei and Yellow River Basins, Northern China”; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Sorghum and Millets in Human Nutrition.

36《詩經》的詩句中提及桃、李、常棣和梅，通常分別是指桃（學名Prunus persica）、李（學名P. salicina）、櫻桃（學名P. pseudocerasus）和梅（Japanese apricot，學名P. mume），即使我們無從確認這些指稱。鬱、唐棣大概也是指梅屬的不同變種；甘棠、杜和檖通常指梨屬（Pyrus sp.）的不同變種，或者有可能是海棠果（蘋果屬），未必由人工栽培。棗通常也稱為棘；木瓜大概是指中華榅桲（學名Pseudocydonia sinensis）。Emil Bretschneider, “Botanicon Sinicum: Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and Western Sources: Part 2”; Robert N. Spengler, Fruit from the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Foods We Eat; Jing Zhang et al., “Genetic Diversity and Domestication Footprints of Chinese Cherry [Cerasus pseudocerasus (Lindl.) G. Don] as Revealed by Nuclear Microsatellites”; Yunfei Zheng, Gary W. Crawford, and Xugao Chen, “Archaeological Evidence for Peach (Prunus persica) Cultivation and Domestication in China.” 張帆，〈頻婆果考—中國蘋果栽培史之一斑〉；陸璣、趙佑，《毛詩草木鳥獸蟲魚疏校正》（未標頁碼，索引後第五十九頁）。

37西坡發現的動物群遺骸（標本數量和重量皆然）超過八成是家豬，多數在兩歲前就被宰殺。鹿在動物群遺骸中不到一成。還有熊、雉／雞、豪豬、瞪羚、野馬、原牛、獼猴、野兔、蚌、蛤、蛙的遺骸。Xiaolin Ma, Emergent Social Complexity in the Yangshao Culture: Analyses of Settlement Patterns and Faunal Remains from Lingbao, Western Henan, China (c. 4900-3000 BC), 64-81. 陝西省考古研究院、西北大學文化遺產與考古學研究中心編著，《高陵東營：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》，頁一九九；寶雞市考古工作隊、陝西省考古研究所寶雞工作站編，《寶雞福臨堡：新石器遺址發掘報告》，頁二二一至二七四；西北大學文博學院考古專業編著，《扶風案板遺址發掘報告》。John Dodson et al., “Oldest Directly Dated Remains of Sheep in China.” 最後一份研究運用同位素資料，主張仰韶時代遺址出土的骨骸屬於馴化羊，但這個論斷根據所在的推測卻很可疑：「野羊很少吃四碳植物。」

38最能適應農業地景的哺乳動物，包括褐家鼠（學名Rattus norvegicus）和東方家鼠（亞洲家鼠，學名R. tanezumi）、白腹鼠（北社鼠，學名Niniventer confucianus）、條紋田鼠（赤背條鼠，學名Apodemus agrarius）、大倉鼠（學名Tscherskia triton）、黑龍江刺蝟（學名Erinaceus amurensis）、蒙古兔（學名Lepus tolai）、以及至少三種蝙蝠：常見的大棕蝠（學名Eptesicus serotinus）、灰色的長耳蝠（學名Plecotus austriacus）和日本伏翼（東亞家蝠，學名Pipistrellus abramus）。此處提及的鳥類則有野鴿（學名Columba livia）、歐亞樹麻雀（學名Passer montanus）、家燕（學名Hirundo rustica）、赤腰燕（學名Hirundo daurica），以及東方毛腳燕（學名Delichon dasypus）。Andrew T. Smith and Yan Xie, Guide to the Mammals of China; Jean-Denis Vigne et al., “Earliest ‘Domestic’ Cats in China Identified as Leopard Cat (Prionailurus bengalensis).” 關於雜草，參看北京大學考古文博學院、河南省文物考古研究所編著，《登封王城崗考古發現與研究（2002-2005）》，頁九一六至九五八，以及Jingping An, Wiebke Kirleis, and Guiyun Jin, “Changing of Crop Species and Agricultural Practices from the Late Neolithic to the Bronze Age in the Zhengluo Region, China.”

39遺址被廢棄，參看Xiaolin Ma, Emergent Social Complexity in the Yangshao Culture: Analyses of Settlement Patterns and Faunal Remains from Lingbao, Western Henan, China (c. 4900-3000 BC), 19, 25; Jiongxin Xu, “Naturally and Anthropogenically Accelerated Sedimentation in the Lower Yellow River, China, over the Past 13,000 Years.” 土壤添加物的證據，參看Yijie Zhuang, “Geoarchaeological Investigation of Pre-Yangshao Agriculture, Ecological Diversity and Landscape Change in North China”, 190.

40中國社會科學院考古研究所陝西六隊，〈陝西藍田泄湖遺址〉，頁四三五至四三七；中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《武功發掘報告：滸西莊與趙家來遺址》，頁十四、九八；梁星彭、李森，〈陝西武功趙家來院落居址初步復原〉。Zhiyan Li, Virginia Bower, and Li He, Chinese Ceramics: From the Paleolithic Period through the Qing Dynasty, 72-102; Rowan Flad, “Divination and Power: A Multiregional View of the Development of Oracle Bone Divination in Early China”, 408; Jianjun Mei, “Early Metallurgy and Socio-cultural Complexity: Archaeological Discoveries in Northwest China.”

41二里頭文化的遺存只在關中的一處遺址發現，此即關中東部的南沙村遺址。關中東部各地發現的陶器與二里頭文化有些近似之處，二里頭文化畢竟也是龍山文化的地域性旁支。Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 215-16. 北京大學考古學教研室，〈華縣、渭南古代遺址調查與試掘〉，頁三一五至三二○。li Liu and Xingcan Chen, State Formation in Early China, 74. 張天恩，《關中商代文化研究》。Pauline Sebillaud, “La distribution spatiale de l’habitat en Chine dans la plaine Centrale à la transition entre le Néolithique et l’âge du Bronze (env. 2500-1050 av. n. è.)”, vol. 1, 307, vol. 2, 223-31.

42Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 47, 60-63, 101, 209-10; Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, 215, 257; Guanghui Dong et al., “Response of Geochemical Records in Lacustrine Sediments to Climate Change and Human Impact during Middle Holocene in Mengjin, Henan Province, China.” 考古調查揭示了某些可能規模不小的遺址，例如武功的史家遺址，但它們尚未受到發掘。國家文物局主編，《中國文物地圖集：陝西分册》，頁四七六。

43發現工具的遺址，包含中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《武功發掘報告：滸西莊與趙家來遺址》，頁六一至六九、九八；西安半坡博物館，〈陝西岐山雙庵新石器時代遺址〉；陝西省考古研究院、西北大學文化遺產與考古學研究中心編著，《高陵東營：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》，頁一二五至一三三；陝西省考古研究院編著，《西安米家崖：新石器時代遺址2004-2006年考古發掘報告》；中國科學院考古研究所編著，《灃西發掘報告：1955-1957年陝西長安縣灃西鄉考古發掘資料》，頁四九至六九；西安半坡博物館、陝西省考古研究所、臨潼縣博物館編，《姜寨：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》上冊，頁三二二；中國社會科學院考古研究所陝西工作隊，〈陝西華陰橫陣遺址發掘報告〉，頁二○至三二；陝西省考古研究所，〈陝西臨潼康家遺址發掘簡報〉；陝西省考古研究所，〈陝西省臨潼縣康家遺址1987年發掘簡報〉。河南的大面積遺址，參看Pauline Sebillaud, “La distribution spatiale de l’habitat en Chine dans la plaine Centrale à la transition entre le Néolithique et l’âge du Bronze (env. 2500-1050 av. n. è.)”, 309-11.

44Can Wang et al., “Temporal Changes of Mixed Millet and Rice Agriculture in Neolithic-Bronze Age Central Plain, China: Archaeobotanical Evidence from the Zhuzhai Site”, 747.（關於小米愈來愈受到歡迎。）Gyoung-Ah Lee et al., “Plants and People from the Early Neolithic to Shang Periods in North China”, 1089; Gyoung-Ah Lee and Sheahan Bestel, “Contextual Analysis of Plant Remains at the Erlitou-Period Huizui Site, Henan, China.” 趙志軍、徐良高，〈周原遺址（王家嘴地點）嘗試性浮選的結果及初步分析〉。Xin Jia et al., “The Development of Agriculture and Its Impact on Cultural Expansion during the Late Neolithic in the Western Loess Plateau, China.”（該文提及甘肅堡子坪遺址出土的一千兩百顆藜籽，暗示人們以種籽為食。）Xinying Zhou et al., “Early Agricultural Development and Environmental Effects in the Neolithic Longdong Basin (Eastern Gansu)”; Gyoung-Ah Lee et al., “Archaeological Soybean in East Asia: Does Size Matter?”; Rowan Flad et al., “Early Wheat in China: Results from New Studies at Donghuishan in the Hexi Corridor”; Chunxiang Li et al., “Ancient DNA Analysis of Desiccated Wheat Grains Excavated from a Bronze Age Cemetery in Xinjiang”; Xiaoqiang Li et al., “Early Cultivated Wheat and Broadening of Agriculture in Neolithic China.” 王訢等，〈陝西白水河流域兩處遺址浮選結果初步分析〉。關於小米勝過小麥之處，參看Ling Zhang, The River, the Plain, and the State: An Environmental Drama in Northern Song China, 1048-1128, 224-28. 關於東亞果實傳入中亞，參看Chris Stevens et al., “Between China and South Asia: A Middle Asian Corridor of Crop Dispersal and Agricultural Innovation in the Bronze Age.” 以及Robert N. Spengler, Fruit from the Sands: The Silk Road Origins of the Foods We Eat. 關於文冠果（學名Xanthoceras sorbifolium）和山杏（學名Armeniaca vulgaris），參看Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 55. 關於桃木和杏木炭，參看Hui Shen et al., “Forest Cover and Composition on the Loess Plateau during the Middle to Late-Holocene: Integrating Wood Charcoal Analyses.” 關於火與侵蝕，參看Chun Chang Huang et al., “Charcoal Records of Fire History in the Holocene Loess—Soil Sequences over the Southern Loess Plateau of China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Colluviation and Its Implications for Tracing Human-Induced Soil Erosion and Redeposition on the Piedmont Loess Lands of the Qinling Mountains, Northern China.” 以及Xiaoqiang Li et al., “Holocene Agriculture in the Guanzhong Basin in NW China Indicated by Pollen and Charcoal Evidence.”

45關於出土的織物印紋，參看中國科學院考古研究所甘肅工作隊，〈甘肅永靖大河莊遺址發掘報告〉，圖版六，墓葬75:1。Dieter Kuhn, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 5.9, 23, 272-79. 楊寬，《西周史》，頁三○七。年代遠及西元前二○○○年前後的麻籽，參看Xin Jia et al., “The Development of Agriculture and Its Impact on Cultural Expansion during the Late Neolithic in the Western Loess Plateau, China.” 雙槐樹遺址的資訊尚未正式發表。

46陝西省考古研究院、西北大學文化遺產與考古學研究中心編著，《高陵東營：新石器時代遺址發掘報告》，頁一九九。Ekaterina Pechenkina, Robert A. Benfer, and Zhijun Wang, “Diet and Health Changes at the End of the Chinese Neolithic: The Yangshao/Longshan Transition in Shaanxi Province.” 關於康家，參看Li Liu, The Chinese Neolithic: Trajectories to Early States, 261. 根據Ekaterina Pechenkina, Robert A. Benfer, and Xiaolin Ma, “Diet and Health in the Neolithic of the Wei and Yellow River Basins, Northern China”, 260. 貧血「可能因應著長期能量不足，連同食物中礦物質成分不足或長期寄生蟲感染而形成」。

47Charlotte Roberts, “What Did Agriculture Do for Us? The Bioarchaeology of Health and Diet”; Nathan D. Wolfe, Claire Panosian Dunavan, and Jared Diamond, “Origins of Major Human Infectious Diseases”; Jared M. Diamond, Guns, Germs, and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies, 195-214; Hui-Yuan Yeh, Xiaoya Zhan, and Wuyun Qi, “A Comparison of Ancient Parasites as Seen from Archeological Contexts and Early Medical Texts in China”; Inaki Comas et al., “Out-of-Africa Migration and Neolithic Coexpansion of Mycobacterium tuberculosis with Modern Humans.”（論及肺結核。）Angela Ki Che Leung, “Diseases of the Premodern Period in China.”

48L. G. Fitzgerald-Huber, “The Qijia Culture: Paths East and West”; Rowan Flad, Yuan Jing, and Li Shuicheng, “Zooarchaeological Evidence for Animal Domestication in Northwest China”; E. E. Kuzmina, The Prehistory of the Silk Road; Choongwon Jeong et al., “Bronze Age Population Dynamics and the Rise of Dairy Pastoralism on the Eastern Eurasian Steppe”; Jing Yuan, Jianlin Han, and Roger Blench, “Livestock in Ancient China: An Archaeozoological Perspective”, 86; Dawei Cai et al., “The Origins of Chinese Domestic Cattle as Revealed by Ancient DNA Analysis”; Dawei Cai et al., “Early History of Chinese Domestic Sheep Indicated by Ancient DNA Analysis of Bronze Age Individuals”; Peng Lu et al., “Zooarchaeological and Genetic Evidence for the Origins of Domestic Cattle in Ancient China”; Masaki Eda et al., “Reevaluation of Early Holocene Chicken Domestication in Northern China”; Joris Peters et al., “Holocene Cultural History of Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus) and Its Domestic Descendant in East Asia.”

49Francesca Bray, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.2, 138-66. 游修齡主編，《中國農業通史：原始社會卷》，頁二七九。Minghao Lin et al., “Pathological Evidence Reveals Cattle Traction in North China by the Early Second Millennium BC”; J. N. Postgate, Early Mesopotamia: Society and Economy at the Dawn of History, 163-64; Peng Lu et al., “Zooarchaeological and Genetic Evidence for the Origins of Domestic Cattle in Ancient China”, 108.

50Marten Stol, “Milk, Butter and Cheese”; Choongwon Jeong et al., “Bronze Age Population Dynamics and the Rise of Dairy Pastoralism on the Eastern Eurasian Steppe”; Shevan Wilkin et al., “Dairy Pastoralism Sustained Eastern Eurasian Steppe Populations for 5,000 Years”; Andrew Curry, “The Milk Revolution”; Hsing-Tsung Huang, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.5, 248-57; Yimin Yang et al., “Proteomics Evidence for Kefir Dairy in Early Bronze Age China.”

51Yongjin Wang et al., “The Holocene Asian Monsoon: Links to Solar Changes and North Atlantic Climate”; Yanjun Cai et al., “The Variation of Summer Monsoon Precipitation in Central China since the Last Deglaciation”; Chengbang An, Zhao-Dong Feng, and Loukas Barton, “Dry or Humid? Mid-Holocene Humidity Changes in Arid and Semi-Arid China”; Huining Wu et al., “A High Resolution Record of Vegetation and Environmental Variation through the Last 25,000 Years in the Western Part of the Chinese Loess Plateau”; Z.-D. Feng et al., “Holocene Vegetation Variations and the Associated Environmental Changes in the Western Part of the Chinese Loess Plateau”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Palaeoflood Events Recorded by Slackwater Deposits along the Lower Jinghe River Valley, Middle Yellow River Basin, China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Extraordinary Floods of 4100-4000 a BP Recorded at the Late Neolithic Ruins in the Jinghe River Gorges, Middle Reach of the Yellow River, China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Extraordinary Floods Related to the Climatic Event at 4200 a BP on the Qishuihe River, Middle Reaches of the Yellow River, China”; Peter Clift and R. Alan Plumb, The Asian Monsoon, 203-10; Neil Roberts, The Holocene: An Environmental History, 220-21; Wenxiang Wu and Tung-sheng Liu, “Possible Role of the ‘Holocene Event 3’ on the Collapse of Neolithic Cultures around the Central Plain of China”; Fenggui Liu et al., “The Impacts of Climate Change on the Neolithic Cultures of Gansu-Qinghai Region during the Late Holocene Megathermal”; Nicolas Rascovan et al., “Emergence and Spread of Basal Lineages of Yersinia pestis during the Neolithic Decline.”

52Yanjun Cai et al., “The Variation of Summer Monsoon Precipitation in Central China since the Last Deglaciation.”（西安南方洞窟。）Chun Chang Huang et al., “Sedimentary Records of Extraordinary Floods at the Ending of the Mid-Holocene Climatic Optimum along the Upper Weihe River, China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Palaeoflood Events Recorded by Slackwater Deposits along the Lower Jinghe River Valley, Middle Yellow River Basin, China”; Xiaogang Li and Chun Chang Huang, “Holocene Palaeoflood Events Recorded by Slackwater Deposits along the Jin-Shan Gorges of the Middle Yellow River, China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Abruptly Increased Climatic Aridity and Its Social Impact on the Loess Plateau of China at 3100 B.P”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Climatic Aridity and the Relocations of the Zhou Culture in the Southern Loess Plateau of China”; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Extraordinary Floods of 4100-4000 a BP Recorded at the Late Neolithic Ruins in the Jinghe River Gorges, Middle Reach of the Yellow River, China”, 6; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Charcoal Records of Fire History in the Holocene Loess—Soil Sequences over the Southern Loess Plateau of China”, 31; Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Dust Accumulation and the Formation of Polycyclic Cinnamon Soils (Luvisols) in the Chinese Loess Plateau”; Hao Long et al., “Holocene Climate Variations from Zhuyeze Terminal Lake Records in East Asian Monsoon Margin in Arid Northern China.”

53劉士莪，《老牛坡：西北大學考古專業發掘報告》。關中的周代以前遺址，包含於以下各著作的描述：北京大學考古系商周組、陝西省考古研究所，〈陝西輝縣北村遺址一九八四年發掘報告〉；北京大學考古系商周組，〈陝西扶風縣壹家堡遺址一九八六年發掘報告〉；以及寶雞市考古工作隊，〈陝西武功鄭家坡先周遺址發掘簡報〉。銅魚和銅龜的圖像，參看陝西省考古研究所、陝西省文物管理委員會、陝西省博物館編，《陝西出土商周青銅器》第一冊，頁六六至七二；中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《南邠州：碾子坡》，頁四九○至四九二。碾子坡兩百多處灰坑出土的一萬一千四百八十四件標本，其中一半是牛骨，三分之一是豬骨，百分之七是狗骨，還有一些山羊／綿羊和馬。

54Chun Chang Huang et al., “Holocene Colluviation and Its Implications for Tracing Human-Induced Soil Erosion and Redeposition on the Piedmont Loess Lands of the Qinling Mountains, Northern China.”

55《詩經》中最常用來指稱小米的字是「稷」和「黍」，「粱」與「粟」較少用。「菽」是指稱豆類的常用字。它大概通常用來指稱大豆，但也可以指稱紅豆和綠豆（學名Vigna angularis和V. radiata），以上參看Gary W. Crawford, “East Asian Plant Domestication”，以及Donald J. Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts, 223.（注意，豌豆和蠶豆直到漢代才傳入中國）。張波、樊志民在《中國農業通史：戰國秦漢卷》主張大豆隨著休耕期縮短而流行起來，看似說得通，但幾乎沒有證據。關中的大豆，參看Cho-yun Hsu, Han Agriculture: The Formation of Early Chinese Agrarian Economy, 206 B.C.-A.D. 220, 102. 食物保存和大豆歷史，參看Hsing-Tsung Huang, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.5. 小麥攝食量增加，參看Ligang Zhou et al., “Human Diets during the Social Transition from Territorial States to Empire: Stable Isotope Analysis of Human and Animal Remains from 770 BCE to 220 CE on the Central Plains of China.” 以及Xin Li et al., “Dietary Shift and Social Hierarchy from the Proto-Shang to Zhou Dynasty in the Central Plains of China.”

56基因研究指出，櫻桃首先在四川盆地周邊受到人工栽培，時間不晚於西元前一○○○年。Jing Zhang et al., “Genetic Diversity and Domestication Footprints of Chinese Cherry [Cerasus pseudocerasus (Lindl.) G. Don] as Revealed by Nuclear Microsatellites.” 陝西省考古研究院等編著，《周原：2000年度齊家製玦作坊和禮村遺址考古發掘報告》，頁七一七至七二三（梅種是杏［學名P. armeniaca〕或東北杏［學名P. mandshurica〕）。Z. Luo and R. Wang, “Persimmon in China: Domestication and Traditional Utilizations of Genetic Resources.”

57栗子是「栗」（學名Castanea mollissima），榛果則是「榛」（學名Corylus sp.）。野生胡桃則是胡桃楸（學名Juglans mandshurica）。《詩經》把葫蘆科植物稱為「瓜」、「瓞」、「爮」和「瓠／壺」。胡桃參看Berthold Laufer, Sino-Iranica: Chinese Contributions to the History of Civilization in Ancient Iran, with Special Reference to the History of Cultivated Plants and Products, 254-75; Paola Pollegioni et al., “Ancient Humans Influenced the Current Spatial Genetic Structure of Common Walnut Populations in Asia.” 葫蘆參看Logan Kistler et al., “Transoceanic Drift and the Domestication of African Bottle Gourds in the Americas.” 甜瓜參看陝西省考古研究院等編著，《周原：2000年度齊家製玦作坊和禮村遺址考古發掘報告》，頁七一七至七二三。Patrizia Sebastian et al., “Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) and Melon (C. melo) Have Numerous Wild Relatives in Asia and Australia, and the Sister Species of Melon Is from Australia”; Yukari Akashi et al., “Genetic Variation and Phylogenetic Relationships in East and South Asian Melons, Cucumis melo L., Based on the Analysis of Five Isozymes.”

58「葑」可能指稱蕪菁的一個或多個變種。包心白菜（小白菜）學名為Brassica chinensis，油菜是B. campestris，錦葵則是Malva verticillata（「葵」）。「韭」指稱薤（學名Allium chinense）或韭菜（學名A. tuberosum）等物種，「椒」在《詩經》中可能是指花椒。Francesca Bray, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.2, 345-6, 521; Emil Bretschneider, “Botanicon Sinicum: Notes on Chinese Botany from Native and Western Sources: Part 2”, 169-73, 195-203.

59《詩經》提及植物叢聚卻並非明顯農用的篇章，包含《國風．周南》的〈關雎〉、〈卷耳〉、〈芣苢〉，《召南》的〈采蘩〉、〈采蘋〉，《邶風》的〈谷風〉，《鄘風》的〈載馳〉，《王風》的〈采葛〉，《魏風》的〈汾沮洳〉，《唐風》的〈采苓〉，《豳風》的〈鴟鴞〉；《小雅．鹿鳴之什》的〈采薇〉、〈杕杜〉，《祈父之什》的〈我行其野〉，《北山之什》的〈北山〉，《都人士之什》的〈采綠〉，以及《魯頌》的〈泮水〉。Hsuan Keng, “Economic Plants of Ancient North China as Mentioned in Shih Ching (Book of Poetry)”, 401-2. 植物的醫藥用途，參看Donald J. Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature: The Mawangdui Medical Manuscripts. 以及Georges Métailié, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.4.

60麻織物在《詩經》的《國風．曹風．蜉蝣》稱為「麻衣」，《豳風．七月》則稱為「褐」。《陳風．東門之池》提到「漚麻」。葛藤就是《國風．周南．葛覃》的「葛」，苧麻則是〈東門之池〉的「紵／苧」。關於麻織品，參看Dieter Kuhn, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 5.9, 15-44. 關於出土織物，參看葛今，〈涇陽高家堡早周墓葬發掘記〉，頁七；孫永剛，〈大麻栽培起源與利用方式的考古學探索〉；以及中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《張家坡西周墓地》，圖版二○○。

61《周頌．閔予小子之什．良耜》指稱草帽的字，寫成竹部「笠」和草部「苙」都有：《漢語大辭典》，頁二九五九。關於家屋，參看中國科學院考古研究所編著，《灃西發掘報告：1955-1957年陝西長安縣灃西鄉考古發掘資料》，頁七五。

62在西安西方周代首都之一的灃西遺址，豬在動物遺骸中占了四成，其次是牛和羊（各占百分之十五）。在周原一處製玦作坊，牛的遺骸仍占了百分之十七，豬骨則有百分之二十三、羊骨百分之二十一、狗骨百分之十四、山羊骨百分之五，以及綿羊／山羊骨百分之三。所有這些數字都是最小個體數。袁靖、徐良高，〈灃西出土動物骨骼研究報告〉；陝西省考古研究院等編著，《周原：2000年度齊家製玦作坊和禮村遺址考古發掘報告》，頁七二四至七五一；林永昌、種建榮、雷興山，〈周公廟商周時期聚落動物資源利用初識〉。Joris Peters et al., “Holocene Cultural History of Red Jungle Fowl (Gallus gallus) and Its Domestic Descendant in East Asia.”

63指稱漁網的字包括「網」、「罛」、「罟」。指稱魚筌的字包括「罩」、「笱」、「罶」，其中一些大概安裝於攔河堰（「梁」）上。《小雅．白華之什．魚麗》和《周頌．臣工之什．潛》內容與魚有關，而《國風．邶風．谷風》則提及魚梁和魚筌。中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《張家坡西周墓地》，頁二八二至二九九、四五○至四五五，以及圖版一五九至一六○、一八二至一九一。林永昌、種建榮、雷興山，〈周公廟商周時期聚落動物資源利用初識〉。周公廟發掘出了金龜，而中華草龜和斑龜都在張家坡出土。

64「漆」和「沮」是兩條河川。《詩經．小雅．彤弓之什》，〈吉日〉。Bernhard Karlgren, The Book of Odes, 124. 阮元校刻，《十三經注疏》，頁四二九。我修訂了高本漢的英譯。指稱「水牛」的兕，參看Jean A. Lefeuvre, “Rhinoceros and Wild Buffaloes North of the Yellow River at the End of the Shang Dynasty.”

65對鹿的某些描繪，參看盧連成、胡智生，《寶雞國墓地》，頁三三八至三四八；高功，〈龍行陳倉，鹿鳴周野—石鼓山西周墓地出土青銅器賞析（二）〉；中國社會科學院考古研究所編著，《張家坡西周墓地》，頁一六一至一六四，彩色圖版十五至二十三。圖版二十四呈現出一整隻（梅花？）鹿被殉葬在墓中。Roel Sterckx, “Attitudes towards Wildlife and the Hunt in Pre-Buddhist China.”

66Francesca Bray, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.2, 105, 162; John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, The Annals of Lu Buwei: A Complete Translation and Study, 656. 產量增加的主張，參看張波、樊志民主編，《中國農業通史：戰國秦漢卷》，頁一七七至一八九。

67宜侯夨簋的銘文記載賞賜「川」，據推測「川」可能是指「甽」，即田間圳溝。馬承源主編，《商周青銅器銘文選》第三卷，頁三四至三五。關於護城河，參看中國社會科學院考古研究所豐鎬隊，〈西安市長安區豐京遺址水系遺存的勘探與發掘〉，以及阿房宮與上林苑考古隊，〈西安市漢唐昆明池遺址區西周遺存的重要考古發現〉。

68這首詩是《周頌．閔予小子之什．良耜》，參看阮元校刻，《十三經注疏》，頁六○二，以及James Legge, The She King or the Book of Poetry, 604. 《月令》引文出自John Knoblock and Jeffrey Riegel, The Annals of Lu Buwei: A Complete Translation and Study, 153. 《荀子》引文出自王先謙，《荀子集解》上冊，卷六，〈富國篇第十〉，頁一八三，以及John Knoblock, Xunzi: A Translation and Study of the Complete Works, vol. 2, 127. 我修訂了理雅各和王志民的英譯。

69本段根據Paul Halstead, “Plough and Power: The Economic and Social Significance of Cultivation with the Ox-Drawn Ard in the Mediterranean.” 以及Amy Bogaard, Mattia Fochesato, and Samuel Bowles, “The Farming-Inequality Nexus: New Insights from Ancient Western Eurasia.”

70其中一段早期的記載，出自徐元誥，《國語集解》第十五，晉語九，〈趙簡子嘆曰〉，頁四五三。早期的著述參看裘錫圭，〈甲骨文所見的商代農業〉，頁一六四。「耕」字通常譯成「犁田」，但往往僅指「種地」或「耕作」。Li Liu and Xingcan Chen, The Archaeology of China: From the Late Paleolithic to the Early Bronze Age, 116-17. 袁靖、徐良高，〈灃西出土動物骨骼研究報告〉。Francesca Bray, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 6.2, 166-67; Joseph Needham and Ling Wang, Science and Civilisation in China, vol. 4.2, 303-33; Vaclav Smil, Energy in Nature and Society: General Energetics of Complex Systems, 155-61.

71引文出自劉向集錄，《戰國策》中冊，卷十八，〈趙一．秦王謂公子他〉，頁六一八至六一九，英譯見James Crump, Chan-Kuo Ts’e, 336. 秦出借耕牛，參看睡虎地秦墓竹簡整理小組編，《睡虎地秦墓竹簡》，頁二五（圖版一二六、一二七）。A.F.P. Hulsewé, Remnants of Ch’in Law: An Annotated Translation of the Ch’in Legal and Administrative Rules of the 3rd Century B.C. Discovered in Yun-Meng Prefecture, Hu-Pei Province, in 1975, 74. 關於微縮車輛模型，參看Lothar von Falkenhausen, “Mortuary Behaviour in Pre-Imperial Qin: A Religious Interpretation”, 132.

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